Astronomy 2e

• Preface
• 1. Science and the Universe: A Brief Tour
  • 1.1 The Nature of Astronomy
  • 1.2 The Nature of Science
  • 1.3 The Laws of Nature
  • 1.4 Numbers in Astronomy
  • 1.5 Consequences of Light Travel Time
  • 1.6 A Tour of the Universe
  • 1.7 The Universe on the Large Scale
  • 1.8 The Universe of the Very Small
  • 1.9 A Conclusion and a Beginning
• 2. Observing the Sky: The Birth of Astronomy
  • 2.1 The Sky Above
  • 2.2 Ancient Astronomy
  • 2.3 Astrology and Astronomy
  • 2.4 The Birth of Modern Astronomy
• 3. Orbits and Gravity
  • 3.1 The Laws of Planetary Motion
  • 3.2 Newton’s Great Synthesis
  • 3.3 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
  • 3.4 Orbits in the Solar System
  • 3.5 Motions of Satellites and Spacecraft
  • 3.6 Gravity with More Than Two Bodies
• 4. Earth, Moon, and Sky
  • 4.1 Earth and Sky
  • 4.2 The Seasons
  • 4.3 Keeping Time
  • 4.4 The Calendar
  • 4.5 Phases and Motions of the Moon
  • 4.6 Ocean Tides and the Moon
  • 4.7 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon
• 5. Radiation and Spectra
  • 5.1 The Behavior of Light
  • 5.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
  • 5.3 Spectroscopy in Astronomy
  • 5.4 The Structure of the Atom
  • 5.5 Formation of Spectral Lines
  • 5.6 The Doppler Effect
• 6. Astronomical Instruments
  • 6.1 Telescopes
  • 6.2 Telescopes Today
  • 6.3 Visible-Light Detectors and Instruments
  • 6.4 Radio Telescopes
  • 6.5 Observations outside Earth’s Atmosphere
  • 6.6 The Future of Large Telescopes
• 7. Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System
  • 7.1 Overview of Our Planetary System
  • 7.2 Composition and Structure of Planets
  • 7.3 Dating Planetary Surfaces
  • 7.4 Origin of the Solar System
• 8. Earth as a Planet
  • 8.1 The Global Perspective
  • 8.2 Earth’s Crust
  • 8.3 Earth’s Atmosphere
  • 8.4 Life, Chemical Evolution, and Climate Change
  • 8.5 Cosmic Influences on the Evolution of Earth
• 9. Cratered Worlds
  • 9.1 General Properties of the Moon
  • 9.2 The Lunar Surface
  • 9.3 Impact Craters
  • 9.4 The Origin of the Moon
  • 9.5 Mercury
• 10. Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars
  • 10.1 The Nearest Planets: An Overview
  • 10.2 The Geology of Venus
  • 10.3 The Massive Atmosphere of Venus
  • 10.4 The Geology of Mars
  • 10.5 Water and Life on Mars
  • 10.6 Divergent Planetary Evolution
• 11. The Giant Planets
  • 11.1 Exploring the Outer Planets
  • 11.2 The Giant Planets
  • 11.3 Atmospheres of the Giant Planets
• 12. Rings, Moons, and Pluto
  • 12.1 Ring and Moon Systems Introduced
  • 12.2 The Galilean Moons of Jupiter
  • 12.3 Titan and Triton
  • 12.4 Pluto and Charon
  • 12.5 Planetary Rings (and Enceladus)
• 13. Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System
  • 13.1 Asteroids
  • 13.2 Asteroids and Planetary Defense
  • 13.3 The “Long-Haired” Comets
  • 13.4 The Origin and Fate of Comets and Related Objects
• 14. Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System
  • 14.1 Meteors
  • 14.2 Meteorites: Stones from Heaven
  • 14.3 Formation of the Solar System
  • 14.4 Comparison with Other Planetary Systems
  • 14.5 Planetary Evolution
• 15. The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star
  • 15.1 The Structure and Composition of the Sun
  • 15.2 The Solar Cycle
  • 15.3 Solar Activity above the Photosphere
  • 15.4 Space Weather
• 16. The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse
  • 16.1 Sources of Sunshine: Thermal and Gravitational Energy
  • 16.2 Mass, Energy, and the Theory of Relativity
  • 16.3 The Solar Interior: Theory
  • 16.4 The Solar Interior: Observations
• 17. Analyzing Starlight
  • 17.1 The Brightness of Stars
  • 17.2 Colors of Stars
  • 17.3 The Spectra of Stars (and Brown Dwarfs)
  • 17.4 Using Spectra to Measure Stellar Radius, Composition, and Motion
• 18. The Stars: A Celestial Census
  • 18.1 A Stellar Census
  • 18.2 Measuring Stellar Masses
  • 18.3 Diameters of Stars
  • 18.4 The H–R Diagram
• 19. Celestial Distances
  • 19.1 Fundamental Units of Distance
  • 19.2 Surveying the Stars
  • 19.3 Variable Stars: One Key to Cosmic Distances
  • 19.4 The H–R Diagram and Cosmic Distances
• 20. Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space
  • 20.1 The Interstellar Medium
  • 20.2 Interstellar Gas
  • 20.3 Cosmic Dust
  • 20.4 Cosmic Rays
  • 20.5 The Life Cycle of Cosmic Material
  • 20.6 Interstellar Matter around the Sun
• 21. The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System
  • 21.1 Star Formation
  • 21.2 The H–R Diagram and the Study of Stellar Evolution
  • 21.3 Evidence That Planets Form around Other Stars
  • 21.4 Planets beyond the Solar System: Search and Discovery
  • 21.5 Exoplanets Everywhere: What We Are Learning
  • 21.6 New Perspectives on Planet Formation
• 22. Stars from Adolescence to Old Age
  • 22.1 Evolution from the Main Sequence to Red Giants
  • 22.2 Star Clusters
  • 22.3 Checking Out the Theory
  • 22.4 Further Evolution of Stars
  • 22.5 The Evolution of More Massive Stars
• 23. The Death of Stars
  • 23.1 The Death of Low-Mass Stars
  • 23.2 Evolution of Massive Stars: An Explosive Finish
  • 23.3 Supernova Observations
  • 23.4 Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars
  • 23.5 The Evolution of Binary Star Systems
  • 23.6 The Mystery of the Gamma-Ray Bursts
• 24. Black Holes and Curved Spacetime
  • 24.1 Introducing General Relativity
  • 24.2 Spacetime and Gravity
  • 24.3 Tests of General Relativity
  • 24.4 Time in General Relativity
  • 24.5 Black Holes
  • 24.6 Evidence for Black Holes
  • 24.7 Gravitational Wave Astronomy
• 25. The Milky Way Galaxy
  • 25.1 The Architecture of the Galaxy
  • 25.2 Spiral Structure
  • 25.3 The Mass of the Galaxy
  • 25.4 The Center of the Galaxy
  • 25.5 Stellar Populations in the Galaxy
  • 25.6 The Formation of the Galaxy
• 26. Galaxies
  • 26.1 The Discovery of Galaxies
  • 26.2 Types of Galaxies
  • 26.3 Properties of Galaxies
  • 26.4 The Extragalactic Distance Scale
  • 26.5 The Expanding Universe
• 27. Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes
  • 27.1 Quasars
  • 27.2 Supermassive Black Holes: What Quasars Really Are
  • 27.3 Quasars as Probes of Evolution in the Universe
• 28. The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies
  • 28.1 Observations of Distant Galaxies
  • 28.2 Galaxy Mergers and Active Galactic Nuclei
  • 28.3 The Distribution of Galaxies in Space
  • 28.4 The Challenge of Dark Matter
  • 28.5 The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies and Structure in the Universe
• 29. The Big Bang
  • 29.1 The Age of the Universe
  • 29.2 A Model of the Universe
  • 29.3 The Beginning of the Universe
  • 29.4 The Cosmic Microwave Background
  • 29.5 What Is the Universe Really Made Of?
  • 29.6 The Inflationary Universe
  • 29.7 The Anthropic Principle
• 30. Life in the Universe
  • 30.1 The Cosmic Context for Life
  • 30.2 Astrobiology
  • 30.3 Searching for Life beyond Earth
  • 30.4 The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence
• Appendix A: How to Study for an Introductory Astronomy Class
• Appendix B: Astronomy Websites, Images, and Apps
• Appendix C: Scientific Notation
• Appendix D: Units Used in Science
• Appendix E: Some Useful Constants for Astronomy
• Appendix F: Physical and Orbital Data for the Planets
• Appendix G: Selected Moons of the Planets
• Appendix H: Future Total Eclipses
• Appendix I: The Nearest Stars, Brown Dwarfs, and White Dwarfs
• Appendix J: The Brightest Twenty Stars
• Appendix K: The Chemical Elements
• Appendix L: The Constellations
• Appendix M: Star Chart and Sky Event Resources